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--- fpga如何工作 [2018/10/24 15:11]
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-====FPGA内部构成====
-逻辑单元（Logic-cells）
-FPGAs are built from one basic "logic-cell", duplicated hundreds or thousands of time. A logic-cell is basically a small lookup table ("LUT"), a D flip-flop and a 2-to-1 mux (to bypass the flip-flop if desired).
-The LUT can implement any logic function. It has typically a few inputs (4 in the drawing above), so for example an AND gate with 3 inputs, whose result is then OR-ed with another input would fit in one 4-input LUT.
-互连
-Each logic-cell can be connected to other logic-cells through interconnect resources (wires/muxes placed around the logic-cells). Each cell can do little, but with lots of them connected together, complex logic functions can be created.
-输入输出单元
-The interconnect wires also go to the boundary of the device where I/O cells are implemented and connected to the pins of the FPGAs.
-特定的布线（routing/carry chains）
-In addition to general-purpose interconnect resources, FPGAs have fast dedicated lines in between neighboring logic cells. The most common type of fast dedicated lines are "carry chains". Carry chains allow creating arithmetic functions (like counters and adders) efficiently (low logic usage & high operating speed). For more info, check this page.
-Older programmable technologies (PAL/CPLD) don't have carry chains and so are quickly limited when arithmetic operations are required.
-In addition to logic, all new FPGAs have dedicated blocks of static RAM distributed among and controlled by the logic elements.
-====内部RAM工作模式====
-There are many parameters affecting RAM operation. The main parameter is the number of agents that can access the RAM simultaneously.
-"single-port" RAMs: only one agent can read/write the RAM.
-"dual-port" or "quad-port" RAMs: 2 or 4 agents can read/write. Great to get data across clock domains (each agent can use a different clock).
-Here's a simplified drawing of a dual-port RAM.
-To figure out how many agents are available, count the number of separate address buses going to the RAM. Each agent has a dedicated address bus. Each agent has also a read and/or a write data bus.
-Writing to the RAM is usually done synchronously. Reading is usually done synchronously but can sometimes be done asynchronously.
-Blockram vs. Distributed RAM
-Now there are two types of internal RAMs in an FPGA: blockrams and distributed RAMs. The size of the RAM needed usually determines which type is used.
-The big RAM blocks are blockrams, which are located in dedicated areas in the FPGA. Each FPGA has a limited number of these, and if you don't use them, you "loose" them (they cannot be used for anything but RAM).
-The small RAM blocks are either in smaller blockrams (Altera does that), or in "distributed RAM" (Xilinx does that). Distributed RAM allows using the FPGA logic-cells as tiny RAMs which provides a very flexible RAM distribution in an FPGA, but isn't efficient in term of area (a logic-cell can actually hold very few bits of RAM). Altera prefers building different size blockrams around the device (more area efficient, but less flexible). Which one is better for you depends on your FPGA application.
-====FPGA管脚分配====
-FPGAs tend to have lots of pins... So to make it a little simpler, let's put them into two bins: "user pins" and "dedicated pins".
-用户管脚
-The user pins are called "IOs", or "I/Os", or "user I/Os", or "user IOs", or "IO pins", or ... you get the idea.
-IO stands for "input-output".
-  * You usually have total control over user IOs. They can be programmed to be inputs, outputs, or bi-directional (i.e. with tri-statable buffers).
-  * Each IO pin is connected to an "IO cell" inside the FPGA. The "IO cells" are powered by the VCCIO pins (IO power pins) - more details below.
-固定管脚
-The "dedicated pins" are hard-coded to a specific function. They fall into the three following sub-categories.
-  * 电源管脚
-  * 配制管脚: used to "download" the FPGA.
-  * 固定输入或时钟管脚: these are able to drive large nets inside the FPGA, suitable for clocks or signals with large fan-outs.
-The power pins fall into two categories: "core voltage" and "IO voltage".
-  * The core voltage is named "VCC" for Xilinx and "VCCINT" for Altera. It is fixed (set by the model of FPGA that you are using). It is used to power the logic gates and flip-flops inside the FPGA. The voltage was 5V for older FPGA generations, and is coming down as new generations come (3.3V, 2.5V, 1.8V, 1.5V, 1.2V and even lower for the latest devices).
-  * The IO voltage is named "VCCO" for Xilinx and "VCCIO" for Altera. It is used to power the I/O blocks (= pins) of the FPGA. That voltage should match what the other devices connected to the FPGA expect.
-An FPGA has many VCCIO pins that may be all powered by the same voltage. But new generations of FPGAs have a concept of "user IO banks": the IOs are split into groups, each having its own VCCIO pins. That allows using the FPGA as a voltage translator device, useful for example if one part of your board works with 3.3V logic, and another with 2.5V.
-====FPGA时钟的使用和处理====
-An FPGA design is usually "synchronous". Simply put, that means that the design is clock based and each clock rising edge allows all the D flip-flops to simultaneously take a new state.
-In a synchronous design, a single clock may drive a lot of flip-flops. That can cause timing and electrical problems inside the FPGA. To get that working properly, FPGA manufacturers provide special internal wires called "global routing" or "global lines". They allow distributing the clock signal all over the FPGA with a low skew (i.e. the clock signal appears almost simultaneously to all the flip-flops).
-Most FPGA designs use at least one clock that is generated outside the FPGA and then fed to the FPGA through one pin. Just make sure you use a clock pin (only them have the ability to drive global lines).
-**Clock domains**
-An FPGA can use multiple clocks (using multiple global lines and clock pins). Each clock forms a "clock domain" inside the FPGA.
-**Flip-flops and combinatorial logic in each clock domain**
-For each flip-flop inside the FPGA, its clock domain is easy to determine. Just look at the flip-flop clock input.
-But what about the combinatorial logic that sits in between flip-flops?
-  * If there is some combinatorial logic in between "same clock domain" flip-flops, the logic is said to be part of the clock domain too.
-  * If there is some combinatorial logic in between "different clock domains" flip-flops, the logic is not owned by any clock domain. But in a typical FPGA design, there is no such logic; the only paths from different clock domains are synchronizers.
-**Clock domain speeds**
-For each clock domain, the FPGA software will analyze all flop-to-flop paths and give you a report with the maximum allowed frequencies. In the general case, only the paths from within each clock domains are analyzed. The synchronizer paths (from different clock domains) usually don't matter and are not analyzed.
-One clock domain may work at 10MHz, while another may work at 100MHz. As long as each clock uses a global line, and you use clock speeds that are lower than the maximums reported by the software, you don't have to worry about internal timing issues, the design is guaranteed to work internally timing-wise.
-There may still be some timing issues from the FPGA input and output pins though. The software will give you a report about that. See also the next section.
-**Signals between clock domains**
-If you need to send some information across different clock domains, special considerations need to apply.
-In the general case, if your clocks have no relationship with one another, you cannot use a signal generated from one clock domain into another as-is. Doing so would violate setup and hold flip-flop timings (in the destination clock domain), and cause metastability.
-Crossing clock domains requires special techniques, like the use of synchronizers (that's simple), or FIFOs (that's more complicated). See the Crossing clock domains project to get some practical ideas, plus Interfacing Two Clock Domains and What Is Metastability?.
-====FPGA的配置和调试====
-FPGA vendors provide many ways to "configure" (i.e. download) their devices. One way uses a cable that connects your PC to the FPGA board. These cables are usually called "JTAG cables" (because they can connect to the JTAG pins of the FPGA).
-**FPGA cables are vendor specific**
-The FPGA configuration interface from all the FPGA vendors are very much alike. That doesn't prevent each vendor to have their own proprietary connectors and cables.
-Xilinx cables
-  * The most popular one is the Platform Cable USB II
-  * Xilinx parallel cable is called Parallel cable III
-Altera cables
-  * The most popular one is the USB-Blaster
-  * Altera parallel cable are the ByteBlasterMV and ByteBlaster II
-**Parallel cables**
-Parallel cables connect to PCs parallel (printer) ports. They are less popular than USB cables but can still be interesting due to their simplicity. They buffer a few pins of the PC parallel interface, and connect to the target board using a flat cable or flying leads. Parallel cables are active devices and need power, but they are usually powered from the target FPGA board.
-FPGA vendors sometime provide the schematic of the cables, which is valuable if you want to understand how they work or build a cable yourself.
-An FPGA can be into 2 states: "configuration mode" or "user mode".
-When an FPGA wakes up after power-up, it is in configuration mode, sitting idle with all its outputs inactive. You need to configure it.
-Configuring an FPGA means downloading a stream of 0's and 1's through some special pins. Once the FPGA is configured, it goes into "user-mode" and becomes active.
-There are three classical ways to configure your FPGA:
-  * You use a "JTAG cable" from your PC to the FPGA, and run a software on your PC to send data through the cable.
-  * You use a microcontroller on your board, with an adequate firmware to send data to the FPGA.
-  * You use a "boot-PROM" on your board, connected to the FPGA, that configures the FPGA automatically at power-up (FPGA vendors have such special boot-PROMs in their catalogs).
-During development, the first method is the easiest and quickest. Once your FPGA design works, you probably don't need the PC anymore, so the other two methods come into use.
-Configuration works in surprisingly identical ways between Xilinx and Altera devices. The differences are mostly in the naming (pin names and modes of operation are named differently), but the functionality is similar.
-Most FPGAs have two sets of pins dedicated to configuration:
-  * The JTAG interface.
-  * The "synchronous serial" interface.
-FPGA configuration can quickly become a complex subject, so you might want to skip this section, especially if you intend to use an already-made FPGA development board. Development boards usually come with a JTAG cable, or a special cable that you can use with no knowledge of the underlying interface. But if you want to learn a little more, read-on.
-**The JTAG interface (or JTAG "port")**
-FPGAs have the ability to be configured through JTAG (using proprietary JTAG commands). Note that JTAG was originally designed for test and manufacturing purposes (to allow a computer to take control of the device pins). FPGAs are certainly JTAG-testing able too.
-See here for more info.
-The "synchronous serial" interface
-It is a simple data/clock interface. It is synchronous and you usually provide one bit at a time to the FPGA.
-Here's a description of the five most important pins of this interface:
-^Xilinx pin name	^Altera pin name	^Direction	^Pin function^
-^data	^data0	^FPGA input	^configuration data bit^
-^clk	^dclk	^FPGA input	^configuration clock (the configuration data bit is shifted in the FPGA at the clock rising-edge)^
-^prog_b	^nConfig	^FPGA input	^When asserted (i.e. when it goes low - this is an active low pin), the FPGA is reset-ed and looses its configuration. If the FPGA was in user-mode, it stops operation immediately, and all IOs become inactive.^
-^init_b	^nStatus	^FPGA output	^This pin indicates when the FPGA is ready to start the configuration process (it takes a few milliseconds for the FPGA to get ready).^
-^done	^ConfDone	^FPGA output	^When high, indicates that the FPGA is configured (i.e. in user-mode).^
-Note: the init_b and done pins are actually open-collector pins, so pull-up resistors are required on these. Also if multiple FPGAs are to be configured, these pins are usually connected together so that all the FPGAs switch into "user-mode" together. There is many more details, so for a complete description, check your FPGA datasheet.